‘The Making of Modern Russia’, 1856-1964

a) To what extent do these sources agree that Russian government policy on agriculture consistently failed and that peasants resisted it under both Tsarist and Communist rule? Source1 concerns the emancipation statute of 1861. Western historian Ronald Hingley cites the introduction of redemption payments â€Å"serfs resented receiving too little land for their needs† this undermines the fundamental aims of the policy. Source 1 makes reference to how the Mir was in charge of paying the redemption payments for the whole village. Hingley points out that â€Å"individual peasants were bound in various ways to their village communes†; peasants were detained in their villages until the payments were received. Hingley notes the creation of Special Courts delegated to discipline unruly peasants â€Å"the flogging of recalcitrant peasants† this is evidence of peasant rebellion, mainly due to the fact they were in a poorer position after emancipation than they were before the policy was introduced. Source 1 suggests agricultural policies were a failure, and provoked peasant uprising, due to the hope the emancipation edict gave peasants of being free. Source 2, meanwhile, presents a mixed view on Stolypin's agricultural reforms. Unlike Source 1 from 1992, this piece of evidence was documented circa 1906. It is therefore unaffected by later analysis or post-Communist interpretation. The first quote is from Stolypin himself, stating that the government has placed â€Å"its wager† on the â€Å"sturdy and the strong†, this indicates that past agricultural reform, such as emancipation have failed, as further â€Å"wagers† or reforms were needed. The other two quotes deal with Stolypin's reforms more directly. The second quote is from a Tsarist Official. It provides direct evidence of rebellion by peasants towards Stolypin's reforms â€Å"The peasants were very hostile to the Law of 9 November† rebellions were commonplace, peasants feared that if land belonged to an individual as opposed to the commune, a consequence would be some would be left with nothing. The third quote is from a peasant, it is important to not that 10% of the peasants in Russia did take up Stolypin's proposals. Segei Semenov endorses Stolypin's reforms anticipating a â€Å"bright new future† this challenges the notion that all agricultural policies consistently failed. Stolypin's reforms were based on good principles that could have revitalized agriculture in Russia. This does suggest that this reform did bring some success, but the general consensus confirms that many peasants preferred social security resulting in the failure of the policy. Source 3 is an excerpt from a meeting between Churchill and Stalin during the Second World War. We se Stalin's personal view regarding the collective farm policy, it is thus a subjective piece of evidence. Stalin implies suggests that the collective farm policy was a failure; he refers to the policy as â€Å"a terrible struggle†. Stalin insinuates peasant resistance against the policy, stating some kulaks were â€Å"wiped out by their labourers† the resistance was a product of peasant reluctance to work on collectivised farms. The farms provided little reward or incentive to the actual peasants growing the grain resulting in the dramatic deterioration of the quality and quantity of the grain. Source 3 ends with an important comment that food supply had been â€Å"vastly increased† this indicates policy victory. However modern evidence undermines Stalin's statement, STATISTIC more and more people were dying of famine during the period of collectivization. Although, Source 3 opposes the view that agricultural policy failed, its reliability is debateable and should be questioned before it is taken into account. Source 4 is an extract from Eduard Shevardandse's ‘The future belongs to Freedom' Source 4 describes the Virgin Land Schemes introduced by Khrushchev/. One must note that the writer was a Communist Youth League activist, and may have been more likely to exaggerate the support the peasants actually gave to the scheme. There is no mention of opposition to the scheme, on the contrary Shevardandse describes the â€Å"trains packed with young volunteers† this stands for optimism on part of peasantry towards the scheme. Source 5 confirms the implication in Source 4 of support in some measure for the project as the scheme did successfully increase the amount of grain produced between 1958 to 1965 from 100 to 114. While the evidence in Source 4 may be true to some extent, the reliability of the source is questionable. The other factor source 4 presents is the relative success of the scheme. Source 5 does seem to disagree with the statement that the policy failed due to the increase in grain production. In Source 4 it is suggested that the policy could have been a triumph had it not been for â€Å"stupid decisions† which weighed down many successes. These â€Å"ill-conceived strategies† included lack of coherence between the crops and the terrain, and deficiency of storage place for the grain, consequently the â€Å"crops rotted in the fields†. Source 5 reinforces the feeling that the scheme was a failure, as the agricultural output during the seven year plan only increased by 14%, the target for 1965 was 170, only 114 was achieved. Source 6 also argued that Khrushchev's policy was for the most part unsuccessful. However the failure is blamed on Khrushchev's inheritance of â€Å"a generation of neglect†. The reliability of some sources must be taken into consideration. Some sources suggest subjectivity and bias such as Sources 3 and 4. Policies such as Stolypin's land reforms and Khrushchev's Virgin Land Schemes are shown to have limited success, but ultimately they both failed to reach targets required. By and large, all the sources do converge in the belief that most of the agricultural policies did fail consistently to a degree. Similarly there is evidence that it was resisted by Peasantry both under Tsarist and Communist rule.

Education as a Social Institution Essay

The social institution referred to as Education is comprised of the school system and it is in the school system where knowledge and skills are developed along with cultural and social values and norms. Additionally, through the school system culture and society continue and further those social values and norms thus fulfilling a need prescribed by society. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the theories of functionalism, conflict, and interactionism perceive the social institution of education. As the functionalism theory states, each social institution exists in order to fulfill a social need in addition without the social institution in question, social order would falter. The conflict theory states, a social institution creates and/or furthers social inequalities and assists in maintaining an ascribed social status in the social order however, as the social order is continuously in flux, the social order tries to find a balance in and for society. The interactionism theory tries to understand why individuals who maintain a presence within a social institution act and/or react to each other under certain stimulations (Vissing, 2011). The social institution of education is comprised of what we term as schools therefore throughout this paper the terms education institution, schools, and the school system will be used interchangeably and accordingly. Each individual within a society is introduced to and educated in a system of values and norms pertaining to their particular society beginning at an early age and continuing through the individual’s lifetime additionally, the school system plays a large part in that education as the youth of that particular society develop into adults. The instructors or teachers within the school system act as role models to elicit proper behavior and strengthen cultural and societal norms (Beaver, 2009). Along with the academic curriculum taught in schools, schools also act as a large socializing agent where students are introduced to their first tertiary peer group. Education is a social institution and through the school system it fulfills a social need because the school system is our first tertiary peer group, the school system introduces us to societal norms, and the school system imparts to society, knowledge and skills. As a socializing entity, school is a basic and necessary universal structure for society. Using an interactionism view, this is so, because it introduces us to, reintroduces us to, affirms, and/or reaffirms most of society’s values and norms through a tertiary peer group consisting of other students and the instructors. The school structure shows the student through example and instruction how to integrate into and act within the group setting and the value/reward system of participating in a team setting. This is accomplished through the instructions and guidance presented to them from the instructors. The student is also influenced by the expectations of the instructor, the expectations of their peers, and the manner in which their peers perceive them and their accomplishments (Vissing, 2011). Additionally, failing to meet academic schedules the student may appear irresponsible to their peers and the instructors as they academically fall behind others in their peer and age groups. It has been noted that students generally meet the expectations made of them, in other words if students are expected to perform well they do so, conversely, if they are not expected to perform well they do not (Vissing, 2011). Therefore, the student’s academic achievement level may be determined by the manner in which the instructors view the students and the student’s behavior and achievements. For example, if an instructor views a student as a trouble maker the student will be labeled and treated as such thus deterring the student from reaching his/her full potential. Looking at this issue with the view of the student as the priority, the student’s academic achievement may be a determinant or a direct result of the manner in which the student views school and why the student views the school in such a manner. A student will not excel academically if they do not enjoy attending school in general, or attending specific classes therefore, what are some causes for a student feeling this way. It is evident that the interactions between the students and instructors play a large role in how the students feel about classes and school in general. Two major factors come into play here and they are, the instructors â€Å"social and emotional support for students and the nature of [the instructors’] expectations for students’ academic performance† (Hallinan, 2008). This interaction between student and instructor is of great value as it influences how a student perceives themself and their environment within the school system. For example, students that perceive they are being overlooked or their capabilities are being undervalued by the instructor will perform poorly. Conversely, when an instructor shows the student some attention, and shows them they are capable and of value as a student, the student will perform to the best of their ability. However, for either of these scenarios to persist the instructor must be consistent with their interactions with the student. Moreover, if the instructor’s expectations and interactions are not consistent with regard to the student then the ability in predicting the student’s success in school or their feelings toward school becomes problematic. The predictability of a student’s feelings toward the school system becomes problematic under these conditions because the equation used in this case is a feedback loop based on how well the instructor matches their expectations to the student’s academic abilities. Moreover, the main variable in the equation of predicting a student’s feelings toward the school system is the student’s reaction to the instructor’s expectations of them when trying to determine how satisfied the student is with a class or school in general (Hallinan, 2008). What we see with the interactionism theory is how the instructor can influence the student’s outlook and ultimately the students’ academic outcome by how they interact with the student and their overall expectations of the student and their academic abilities. Additionally the interactionism theory shows how the students peer group may also account for their success or failure in school and individual classes because of the influence the peer groups perceptions of the individual student’s academic performances. Lastly the interactionism theory shows how the students overall feelings and self-perceptions toward the school system as a whole, individual classes, and their own academic performance may also affect the students success and/or failure. What the conflict theory shows is how the school system supports the continuance of the social inequalities between the elite class and the lower class individual in relationship to their achieved status in a culture/society while maintaining the status quo. This allows the elite class of a society to control and direct the school system and its curriculum in a manner that will ultimately benefit that upper class (Beaver, 2009). The conflict theory also acknowledges the competition between peers that promotes a more rounded comprehension of subject matter through stronger and/or competitive study skills and this concept of competition follows a student through school and into the workforce. Additionally, the concept of competition is promoted through a system of rewards both in the school system and in the workforce such as the honor role, the dean’s list, acceptance into honor societies, or becoming employee of the month or year. The school system accomplishes this with its curriculum so that the lower class student will accept the inevitability of a position in the working class and catering to the upper class student by grooming them to acquire and maintain positions in the ruling class (Beaver, 2009) (Vissing, 2011). Additionally, the conflict theorist proposes that the school system controls the thinking patterns and reasoning powers of the students and the manner in which the student acts and reacts in social situations (Vissing, 2011). In addition, through example the students are introduced and instructed in the social values and beliefs of their society and culture. This seeming agenda of the school system is better explained by Yvonne Vissing (2011) when she states, â€Å"this role of education [is called] the â€Å"hidden curriculum†. [It is because] inequality results in a variety of forms, including structured differences in quality of educational institutions available to the rich versus the poor† (p 167). However, this hidden curriculum is not a set curriculum but it is implied and taught in such a way as to be unnoticed by the student’s daily attendance in school system. To explain the hidden curriculum an example of comparison between two different societies will be used. In society-a one of the more important values is individualism; individualism implies the right to freedom of thought and action by the individual. Therefore, in society-a, the school curriculum is designed to promote self-identity and self-esteem. However, in society-b, the value of individualism is looked upon as an undesirable social trait and the students are taught through implication that to be singled out is shameful and social esteem is of more importance than self-esteem. Therefore, in society-b, the curriculum is designed in such a way that students are taught that group honor is of more importance than self-honor is (Davis, 2010). The conflict theory also shows how the business world has a large stake in the type of students the school system turns out and these needs are addressed through a school’s curriculum. Additionally, as the business world, which is directed and controlled by the elite, advises certain change in the curriculum in the school system to meet its needs the school system in some cases modifies and adjusts its curriculum to meet those changing needs. However, this raises the question, in fulfilling the needs of the business world does the school system always advance and groom the best candidate for a controlling position in the workforce or is there a bias in place where instead the most likely candidate is advanced and groomed for those positions (Beaver, 2009). According to Daniel Ashton, in England a collaborative program between government and education tries to address the issues between the school system (Educational Institution) and the business world. One of the issues that is being addressed is, the gap between industry and the school system relating to â€Å"workplace skills† and present educational curricula. The manner in which this gap is being addressed is with an assessment of a person’s natural abilities to assist in developing that person and those abilities to help â€Å"build a dynamic and vibrant society† (2009). It is worthy to note here that among the youth in lower class urban and rural America the perceived likelihood that a high quality education will be of any significance in their future working status is small. Additionally, this is because the sub-culture of the urban and rural lower class American is where they feel comfortable, and the middle/upper class urban/city culture of America is not only unfamiliar to them but also uncomfortable to them. Moreover, as the higher educational concepts are unfamiliar and have no real bearing on their daily lives the lower class student can at best only absorb the higher educational concepts by rote alone if at all (Becker, 1955). Even though many rural school systems persist in advancing the conceptual educational theories, many students in these rural areas still find it difficult to advance and succeed outside their natural comfort zone. Therefore, the ability to excel beyond the working class is deterred by the many technical and vocational training schools in these areas (Becker, 1955). We see with the conflict theory how it supports social and status inequalities through class stratification, the status structure, and through peer competition. Additionally it shows there is a hidden curriculum or agenda that controls the thought pattern of students headed into the workforce of society where they are expected to accept a status of the controlled or controlling members in the workforce based on their family status level in society. In addition, it shows how the business world has a stake in the level and focus of the curriculum administered to the student in relationship to the workforce and social skills the student has acquired upon graduation as they nter the workforce. Lastly, it shows how education is split into generalized higher education, specialized higher education, and vocational education and training in support of both professions and trades in the workforce and business world. Emile Durkheim’s view of education was that over time the school system became comprised of an ordered composite of social disciplines and social structures with the ability to intermesh with like and unlike social structures. However, Durkheim also postulated that society as a whole had a greater ability to modify its structure than that of the social structure of school system (Clark, 1973). Therefore, looking at Education through the school system from a functionalism point of view, the school system is a viable social structure as it fulfills many primary and secondary social and cultural needs. Some of these primary needs are the teaching and reinforcing of cultural values and norms, in addition to the teaching of â€Å"work ethics† and certain general and specific aspects about the work environment the students will eventually enter. One of the more important concepts schools teach in the area of the ‘work’ environment, both in school and out of school, is how to accept success and/or failure and how to move forward under both conditions (Beaver, 2009) (Vissing, 2011). It is also important to look at some of the secondary social needs fulfilled by the school system. In the early introduction to the school system, the student is immersed into a tertiary peer group where they begin to socialize with many others in their age range. In today’s society schools also act as a form of day care system and with extracurricular (sports) programs after the academic period the students are kept â€Å"off the streets and out of the competitive workforce until they have reached a certain age† (Vissing, 2011). In the attainment of viable and competitive employment in the current and future workforce, the school systems offer many specific elective disciplines for many professions and trades in society’s business industries. This system of elective classes assists the student in assessing and being assessed in their abilities and compatibility of a particular profession and/or trade. Additionally, to assist the student and satisfy the business industry the school system has incorporated specialized schools that follow a narrowed or focused curriculum in order to fulfill the burgeoning needs of particular industries in the business and economic worlds. However, these types of schools hold an additional outcome for the more generalized school and its students. Even though a larger number of people enjoy the financial benefits supplied in their profession of choice, the student who graduates from this type of school has a less rounded education than the student who graduates from a traditional school. Additionally, for the business world, the only purpose for this type of education is to fulfill its needs for semi-qualified workers and the benefit derived from this type of education for the worker is that of being employed in a trade and/or profession of their choosing and acquiring the achieved status they desired. Therefore, through this type of narrowed and focused education both the student and the business world are satisfied and share a sense of success (Tufts, 1909). The control of how and what is taught in the school system is directed and enforced by the dominant culture of a society. Therefore, in all school systems students are taught nationalism, nationalism is formed of the values and norms particular to each individual country and that countries culture/society, and each culture will present that nationalism with a bias leaning toward that particular nation/culture. For example, in the United States of America the schools teach about the struggle we had in becoming a nation, the meaning of our national flag and how we honor it with our pledge of allegiance to the nation it represents. What the school system does not teach is the degradation caused to the aboriginal peoples of this country by the dominant imperialist mindset of the people who conquered those aboriginal peoples. Our dominant culture may be intrigued by and even be sympathetic toward the culture and society that was decimated in the making of this dominant nation/culture however, that culture and its values and norms are of little significance in the indoctrination of the nation’s society of its dominant cultural values and norms (Becker, 1955). Although the primary function of the school system is the indoctrination of the student in knowledge and skills to be used later in the work arena it is the latent function of the school system, i. e. : the social interactions within the peer groups the students are introduced to, is of greater importance. The functionalism theory shows that as a bureaucratic structure the education institution is steeped in tradition, and is less likely to change than society is as a whole. The functionalism theory additionally shows the needs of society being fulfilled, through the social values, norms, national icons, work ethics, and accountability of the society it serves. Additionally, the functionalism theory shows how the values of accountability and ethics are accomplished with active peer group integration. In addition, work ethics accomplished through academic structure and schedules. Lastly, we see how the national icons on the dominant culture are instilled on a society with little regard to the subjugated culture that may have been in place prior to being overshadowed or have immigrated to that culture. Using three sociological theories and looking through the school system at the social institution referred to as Education we see how this institution affects society as a whole and fulfills certain social and cultural needs. With interactionism, we see how the expectations of the group affect the individual’s self-expectations and actions within the group, society, and particular culture. Interactionism additionally shows how the school system introduces and instructs students how to interact with each other and society in a positive and healthy manner. When we look at the school system with the conflict theory, we see how it supports the inequalities between the class stratification and the status structure in a society, both at the individual level and the collective level while maintaining the status quo. Additionally, the conflict theory shows how the elite class uses the business sector to influence the curriculum in the school system, which also contributes to the continuance of social inequalities. Moreover, the conflict theory shows how the school system has the power the control the thinking patterns of a society through a ‘hidden curriculum’. What functionalism shows us about the school system is the school system is a viable social structure as it fulfills many primary and secondary social and cultural needs. It additionally shows us some of those social needs, which are the teaching and reinforcing cultural values and norms. In addition, that the school system teaches students â€Å"work ethics† along with specific and general aspects about the work environment they will eventually enter. Moreover, when we look at the educational institution using the functionalism theory we see how the school system confirms the validity of education as a social institution by fulfilling certain needs of a culture and society. Lastly, we see the interrelationship between these three sociological theories and the educational institution. This is shown to us through our peer group, teacher, business, social, status and workforce expectations and interactions. Additionally, we are shown how the educational institution can and does affect our self-esteem, self-perception, and achieved status level.

Expansion of NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed on 4th April 1949 after the Second World War as a realization of the importance of close ties between United States of America and Europe for the stability and security of world [1]. It was a watershed event in both the US history and in the history of 20th century, as it marked the isolationist strategy that had characterized US foreign policy since more than 2 centuries [2].The alliance was seen as a counter strategy to protect Western European democracies against the growing threat of communism under USSR[3]. Later on this strategic-military alliance proved an important tool in the wake of Cold War between USA and USSR where it was seen as only safeguard for US and its allies against the expansionist designs of communist countries spearheaded by USSR.However with the disintegration of USSR, unification of Germany and end of Cold War in 1989-1991, the functional utility of NATO were re-examined to decide its future role in the ne w world order. However, end of the Cold War did not signify end of role of NATO and soon it witnessed the wide ethnic and religious conflicts in the Eastern Europe, especially in Balkan nations [4]. By 1995, NATO was required to intervene directly in many of these affairs as well as play the role of peacekeeper in the newly independent countries.Later on in the decade, the issue of terrorism raised its head, and presented further challenges to roles, responsibilities and scope of NATO’s future strategies [5]. Through the entire decade of 1990s NATO was shaping up its own future action course and on June 8-9, 1997, it took decision to expand and include new democracies of The Czech Republic, Hungry, and Poland, all former USSR allies, as part of NATO[6]. Since this decision has risen much debated and heat over its contextual application in the changed world order, and criticisms have been abundant on the merit of expansionist strategy of NATO in the 21st century world [7]. Thi s paper shall examine the various issues involved with expansion strategy along with their merits and demerits.The debate against the expansionThe decision to expand the NATO has created heated debates and arguments, both in favor and against of the decision. Many hold the opinion that an expanded NATO would be beneficial for world order, global peace and security and economic development and free trade, while others view threats of greater regional tension and hegemony of certain nations if NATO continues to expand[8]. The Expansion of NATO is generally opposed on following four grounds[9]1.The expansion involves huge expenditure to protect the allied countries. Estimates have put the expenditure at more than $125 billion annually if US goes ahead with the expansion strategy.2.Dangerously high level of commitments on part of US of protecting the newly enrolled allied countries. Western European countries themselves have demonstrated little interest in the expansion program as they consider it primarily an American objective. Thus it falls back entirely on USA to shield the its allies which may be a daunting and horrific task given the complex geo-political relation they share with each other as well as USA’s former nemesis USSR.3. The third problem is a modification of second problem which involves conflicting nature of relations among even new entrants in   NATO. Further, some of the Central and Eastern European countries such as Hungry and Poland are embroiled centuries long feuds with their neighbors and a conflict, even though on limited scale would make it mandatory for US to assist the member country, thereby widening the scope of the conflict.4. The last concern presented relates to the possibility that expansion may forever engage NATO as a peacekeeping authority in the extreme Eastern Europe where situation among several countries, including Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Hungry, is so volatile that repeated conflicts can break out over a num ber of years.The expansion and responsible factorsThe expansion of NATO came after long negotiations with former communist nations that included Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. NATO took a series of steps, such as formation of North Atlantic Cooperation Council in 1991 and NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) program in 1994 to develop an amicable and peaceful environment for effective interaction and cooperation for these countries[10]. The decision to finally include Czech Republic, Hungry and Poland came after long deliberations and amidst a growing consensus that these nascent democracies needed to be integrated in the western democratic framework to help them achieve rapid and lasting economic development[11].Although the debate on this expansion has been widely across political and strategic spectrum, it should be noted that it was not for the first time that NATO had expanded. Article 10 of NATO’s foundation document has g iven it implicit rights to include new members on their meeting certain criteria[12].As one of the central premises of NATO is that attack on any of its member would be considered as attack against all and hence NATO would be s justified in taking military action against the aggressor, it attracted many European non members to the organization to safeguard their democratic values, freedom, heritage and civilization[13]. Thus NATO has undergone three major expansions since its formation to fulfill its commitment to stability and continued growth of economy and trade in the member countries.By 1990s most of the eastern European nations were convinced that in joining NATO remained their only hope to protect their integrity, and ensure their survival in an increasingly chaotic political order. On its part, NATO was also eager to embrace these countries has it perceived that most of problems afflicting Europe were occurring in non NATO member countries and therefore by increasing the sco pe of alliance, NATO would contribute towards increasing the stability and security in the Eastern Europe[14]. Further, the new responsibilities gave NATO the much-required opportunity to present a changed face and more responsible and comprehensive attitude in the post-Cold War world affairs[15].In wake of these developments, notwithstanding the criticism and debates surrounding the earlier expansion strategy to include the three former communist nations, USA has confirmed its commitment to further expansion of NATO in the coming years[16].European security and future expansion strategy of NATOAs the Cold War ended in 1989, it became apparent that Eastern Europe was headed for comprehensive restructuring and reformulating the strategies that were no longer applicable in the new context[17]. Abatement of hostilities between Western and Eastern Europe provided an unprecedented opportunity to policy makers to work towards attainment of long standing objective of European unification, in which NATO was considered as a powerful catalyst.NATO provided the vital platform where the political, economic and military interests of both Western and Eastern Europe came together and its own regional development took priority with view to strengthen the economic and strategic coalition of European states[18].   NATO was the instrument that facilitated this ideological and strategic unification of Europe.In the view of changed political order in Europe and risks of terrorism, NATO has formed a long term future expansion strategy that makes it open to every European country which seeks NATO’s help in protecting its identity and culture while making transition towards democracy[19]. Although the immediate and pressing needs of any plan of expansion have receded, especially after the successful handling of Balkan crisis by NATO and demonstration of its continued relevance as a capable peacemaker. Also, the latest enlargement, as discussed before, addressed one of the pr essing issues on NATO, to form an active collaboration with former USSR supporting countries.Yet the future expansion of NATO is inevitable, as many non –NATO European countries would begin to meet the conditions for entry into the Alliance and may question its commitment to peacekeeping if denied admittance[20].Therefore considering the requirement of expansion, NATO has planned the procedure in distinct steps, with no-surprise strategy. Aspirants may request for membership two years before the decision making years that are set as 2002, 2008-09, and 2012-14. As strategist point out that these expansions would be limited to introduction of maximum one or two nations at a time, rather than multiple entry[21]. These expansions would increase the membership of NATO to 25 countries, making it one of the most organized and important military alliances in the modern times.The future expansion strategy of NATO comprises of five steps1. Development of military cooperation with the n ewly joined state under Partnership for Peace (PfP) initiative2. Greater PfP coordination and cooperation to meet expectations and aspirations of new members3.Formation of rules and guidelines that assess a given country’s eligibility for consideration of NATO membership4.Assessment and scrutiny of a given country’s standing in fulfilling NATO’s commitment if accepted as member5.Deciding the time frame for new country to join the Alliance.ConclusionExpansion of NATO has to be seen from a broader and longer perspective. NATO has become an indispensable tool, especially in the changing nature of terrorism that is taking global dimension. As once the free democracies of Western Europe and USA combined to thwart designs of Communism, its equally vital in the present scenario for them and the new members to form an alliance that thwarts evil purpose of global terrorism for which an armed, military equipped and strategically capable military authority is necessary.NAT O, by expanding its membership, is in the process of gaining that crucial strategic leverage, as well as create conditions in the first place that would prevent many countries to be affected by menace of terrorism in the changed world strategic order.ReferenceAlexander Moens, Lenard J.Cohen, Allen G.Sens .NATO and European Security: Alliance Politics from the End of the Cold War to the Age of Terrorism.: Praeger.: Westport, CT. 2003Barany, Z. The Future of NATO Expansion: Four Case Studies. Cambridge University Press.: Cambridge, England.: 2003Carpenter T.G and Barbara C. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute.: Washington, DC.: 2001Gardener, H..   NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Kaplna, L.S. The Long Entanglement: NATO's First Fifty Years. Praeger.: Westport, CT. 1999Lepgold, J.   NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 7 8–106Millar A and Plesch D.T. Pushing the Envelope Too Far? Technology's Impact on NATO Expansion. Journal of International Affairs. Volume: 51. Issue: 2.: 1998. Page Number: 641.Seidelmann, R. NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Simon, J.   Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995Solomons, G.B. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997: The Blessings of Liberty.: Praeger.: Westport, CT.: 1998.Szayna, T.S. NATO Enlargement, 2000-2015: Determinants and Implications for Defense Planning and Shaping. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001.[1] A. Millar and D.T   Plesch. Pushing the technology too far?   Journal of International Affairs. [2] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 1 [3] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 2 [4] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security .   Praeger. 2003. [5] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security.   Praeger. 2003. [6] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 1. [7] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003. [8] H. Gardner. NATO for a New Century: Editor.   C. Hodge. Praeger. Westport, CT. 2002. P: 23. [9] T.G. Carpenter and A.B. Conry. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute. Washington DC. 2001. [10] Jeffrey Simon, Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995) [11] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 8 [12] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [13] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 2. [14] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [15] Joseph Lepgold, NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, † International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 78–106 [16] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [17] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 47 [18] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 48 [19] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-41. [20] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42. [21] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42 Expansion of NATO IntroductionNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed on 4th April 1949 after the Second World War as a realization of the importance of close ties between United States of America and Europe for the stability and security of world [1]. It was a watershed event in both the US history and in the history of 20th century, as it marked the isolationist strategy that had characterized US foreign policy since more than 2 centuries [2]. The alliance was seen as a counter strategy to protect Western European democracies against the growing threat of communism under USSR[3]. Later on this strategic-military alliance proved an important tool in the wake of Cold War between USA and USSR where it was seen as only safeguard for US and its allies against the expansionist designs of communist countries spearheaded by USSR.However with the disintegration of USSR, unification of Germany and end of Cold War in 1989-1991, the functional utility of NATO were re-examined to decide its future r ole in the new world order. However, end of the Cold War did not signify end of role of NATO and soon it witnessed the wide ethnic and religious conflicts in the Eastern Europe, especially in Balkan nations [4]. By 1995, NATO was required to intervene directly in many of these affairs as well as play the role of peacekeeper in the newly independent countries.Later on in the decade, the issue of terrorism raised its head, and presented further challenges to roles, responsibilities and scope of NATO’s future strategies [5]. Through the entire decade of 1990s NATO was shaping up its own future action course and on June 8-9, 1997, it took decision to expand and include new democracies of The Czech Republic, Hungry, and Poland, all former USSR allies, as part of NATO[6]. Since this decision has risen much debated and heat over its contextual application in the changed world order, and criticisms have been abundant on the merit of expansionist strategy of NATO in the 21st century w orld [7]. This paper shall examine the various issues involved with expansion strategy along with their merits and demerits.The debate against the expansionThe decision to expand the NATO has created heated debates and arguments, both in favor and against of the decision. Many hold the opinion that an expanded NATO would be beneficial for world order, global peace and security and economic development and free trade, while others view threats of greater regional tension and hegemony of certain nations if NATO continues to expand[8]. The Expansion of NATO is generally opposed on following four grounds[9]1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The expansion involves huge expenditure to protect the allied countries. Estimates have put the expenditure at more than $125 billion annually if US goes ahead with the expansion strategy.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dangerously high level of commitments on part of US of protecting the newly enrolled allied countries. Western European countries themselves have demonst rated little interest in the expansion program as they consider it primarily an American objective. Thus it falls back entirely on USA to shield the its allies which may be a daunting and horrific task given the complex geo-political relation they share with each other as well as USA’s former nemesis USSR.3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third problem is a modification of second problem which involves conflicting nature of relations among even new entrants in   NATO. Further, some of the Central and Eastern European countries such as Hungry and Poland are embroiled centuries long feuds with their neighbors and a conflict, even though on limited scale would make it mandatory for US to assist the member country, thereby widening the scope of the conflict.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The last concern presented relates to the possibility that expansion may forever engage NATO as a peacekeeping authority in the extreme Eastern Europe where situation among several countries, including Romani a, Serbia, Slovakia and Hungry, is so volatile that repeated conflicts can break out over a number of years.The expansion and responsible factors  The expansion of NATO came after long negotiations with former communist nations that included Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. NATO took a series of steps, such as formation of North Atlantic Cooperation Council in 1991 and NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) program in 1994 to develop an amicable and peaceful environment for effective interaction and cooperation for these countries[10]. The decision to finally include Czech Republic, Hungry and Poland came after long deliberations and amidst a growing consensus that these nascent democracies needed to be integrated in the western democratic framework to help them achieve rapid and lasting economic development[11].Although the debate on this expansion has been widely across political and strategic spectrum, it should be noted that it was n ot for the first time that NATO had expanded. Article 10 of NATO’s foundation document has given it implicit rights to include new members on their meeting certain criteria[12].As one of the central premises of NATO is that attack on any of its member would be considered as attack against all and hence NATO would be s justified in taking military action against the aggressor, it attracted many European non members to the organization to safeguard their democratic values, freedom, heritage and civilization[13]. Thus NATO has undergone three major expansions since its formation to fulfill its commitment to stability and continued growth of economy and trade in the member countries.By 1990s most of the eastern European nations were convinced that in joining NATO remained their only hope to protect their integrity, and ensure their survival in an increasingly chaotic political order. On its part, NATO was also eager to embrace these countries has it perceived that most of problem s afflicting Europe were occurring in non NATO member countries and therefore by increasing the scope of alliance, NATO would contribute towards increasing the stability and security in the Eastern Europe[14]. Further, the new responsibilities gave NATO the much-required opportunity to present a changed face and more responsible and comprehensive attitude in the post-Cold War world affairs[15].In wake of these developments, notwithstanding the criticism and debates surrounding the earlier expansion strategy to include the three former communist nations, USA has confirmed its commitment to further expansion of NATO in the coming years[16].European security and future expansion strategy of NATOAs the Cold War ended in 1989, it became apparent that Eastern Europe was headed for comprehensive restructuring and reformulating the strategies that were no longer applicable in the new context[17]. Abatement of hostilities between Western and Eastern Europe provided an unprecedented opportuni ty to policy makers to work towards attainment of long standing objective of European unification, in which NATO was considered as a powerful catalyst.NATO provided the vital platform where the political, economic and military interests of both Western and Eastern Europe came together and its own regional development took priority with view to strengthen the economic and strategic coalition of European states[18].   NATO was the instrument that facilitated this ideological and strategic unification of Europe.In the view of changed political order in Europe and risks of terrorism, NATO has formed a long term future expansion strategy that makes it open to every European country which seeks NATO’s help in protecting its identity and culture while making transition towards democracy[19]. Although the immediate and pressing needs of any plan of expansion have receded, especially after the successful handling of Balkan crisis by NATO and demonstration of its continued relevance as a capable peacemaker. Also, the latest enlargement, as discussed before, addressed one of the pressing issues on NATO, to form an active collaboration with former USSR supporting countries.Yet the future expansion of NATO is inevitable, as many non –NATO European countries would begin to meet the conditions for entry into the Alliance and may question its commitment to peacekeeping if denied admittance[20].Therefore considering the requirement of expansion, NATO has planned the procedure in distinct steps, with no-surprise strategy. Aspirants may request for membership two years before the decision making years that are set as 2002, 2008-09, and 2012-14. As strategist point out that these expansions would be limited to introduction of maximum one or two nations at a time, rather than multiple entry[21]. These expansions would increase the membership of NATO to 25 countries, making it one of the most organized and important military alliances in the modern times.The future expansion strategy of NATO comprises of five steps1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Development of military cooperation with the newly joined state under Partnership for Peace (PfP) initiative2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Greater PfP coordination and cooperation to meet expectations and aspirations of new members3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Formation of rules and guidelines that assess a given country’s eligibility for consideration of NATO membership4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Assessment and scrutiny of a given country’s standing in fulfilling NATO’s commitment if accepted as member5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Deciding the time frame for new country to join the Alliance.ConclusionExpansion of NATO has to be seen from a broader and longer perspective. NATO has become an indispensable tool, especially in the changing nature of terrorism that is taking global dimension. As once the free democracies of Western Europe and USA combined to thwart designs of Communism, its equally vital in the present s cenario for them and the new members to form an alliance that thwarts evil purpose of global terrorism for which an armed, military equipped and strategically capable military authority is necessary. NATO, by expanding its membership, is in the process of gaining that crucial strategic leverage, as well as create conditions in the first place that would prevent many countries to be affected by menace of terrorism in the changed world strategic order.ReferenceAlexander Moens, Lenard J.Cohen, Allen G.Sens .NATO and European Security: Alliance Politics from the End of the Cold War to the Age of Terrorism.: Praeger.: Westport, CT. 2003Barany, Z. The Future of NATO Expansion: Four Case Studies. Cambridge University Press.: Cambridge, England.: 2003Carpenter T.G and Barbara C. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute.: Washington, DC.: 2001Gardener, H..   NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Kap lna, L.S. The Long Entanglement: NATO's First Fifty Years. Praeger.: Westport, CT. 1999Lepgold, J.   NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 78–106Millar A and Plesch D.T. Pushing the Envelope Too Far? Technology's Impact on NATO Expansion. Journal of International Affairs. Volume: 51. Issue: 2.: 1998. Page Number: 641.Seidelmann, R. NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Simon, J.   Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995Solomons, G.B. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997: The Blessings of Liberty.: Praeger.: Westport, CT.: 1998.Szayna, T.S. NATO Enlargement, 2000-2015: Determinants and Implications for Defense Planning and Shaping. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001.[1] A. Millar and D.T   Plesch. Pushing the technology too far?   Journal of Interna tional Affairs.[2] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 1 [3] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 2 [4] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security.   Praeger. 2003. [5] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security.   Praeger. 2003. [6] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 1. [7] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003. [8] H. Gardner. NATO for a New Century: Editor.   C. Hodge. Praeger. Westport, CT. 2002. P: 23. [9] T.G. Carpenter and A.B. Conry. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute. Washington DC. 2001. [10] Jeffrey Simon, Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995) [11] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 8 [12] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [13] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enla rgement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 2. [14] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [15] Joseph Lepgold, NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, † International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 78–106 [16] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [17] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 47 [18] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 48 [19] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-41. [20] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42.[21] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42

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Environmental Ethics Essay Environmental ethics falls under the discipline of environmental philosophy that studies how human beings relate to their natural environment. This is a wide study that involves a variety of other disciplines such as those that study human relationships, economics, the earth’s structure and biology especially ecology. Human beings being the most superior of all the living things on earth have an ethical obligation to the environment concerning the earth, air, water, other organisms and the human population, both the present and the future generation. Environmental ethics brigs up a variety of issues concerning what, when, how and why we should consider this area of study. Aspects arising include the environment’s moral value, how sustainable are the policies on environmental protection, and how do these apply to the developing nations, and what policies should be put in place to ensure that the environment is safe guarded for the future generation, among others. This topic has been studied by many philosophers through the years, but it only came to be recognized as an independent discipline in 1970, due to awareness of effects of increasing human knowledge on the environment. Growing economics and populations, new technologies and development of industries all have had various adverse effects on nature, although aimed at improving life. The works of Rachael Carson, Paul Ehrlich, Aldo Leopold, among others brought about ethical concerns about the environment. Under environmental ethics, human beings have a duty towards the environment, on protection and conservation as well as having a quality life for themselves. In this context, contentious issues arise as to why we should be concerned about the environment. Should it be for us, the living human beings, the future generation, or for the environment itself regardless of our own benefits? Different personalities offer different answers to this question, hence different views have come up on environmental ethics. The issues of environmental ethics is of growing concern to the government and other institution including United Nations which have come up with incentives to people to value and appreciate nature. Earth Day which is held annually (first held in 1970) continues to create awareness and sensitize people on the value of the environment and why it should be protected. The Moral Standing We cannot handle ethics without reference to moral philosophy, which is concerned with individual behaviors and conducts. the moral standing depends on what is considered ‘right’ or ‘good’ and ‘wrong’ or ‘bad’ by an individual or a society. For instance, different societies have different views on areas like land and animal ownership, rights of the future generation, and many more. Personal conduct with respect to environmental ethics defines how people should interact with nature, regarding its exploitation and conservation. The moral standing of the ethical issues on environment are wholly placed on human beings as they are the only living things who can reason and decide on moral issues. Many of the environmental concerns revolve around man and how these affect him, thus the responsibility of environmental ethics should be solely man’s. Responsibility to the environment implies that we are aware of this task, we are able to do it, we are at liberty to do it or not, and carrying out of the task has an effect to others existing in the environment. This means that we know the damage we can cause to the environment, the effects of this damage and the prevention or solutions to these problems. This gives us a moral significance in environmental ethics, and gives us a central role. The moral standing therefore means we have the moral obligation towards nature and the capability to carry out this responsibility. When we consider environmental ethics, then, look at issues such as: †¢ Should we care about nature for itself while it’s people who really â€Å"matter†?  That is if not for human beings benefit; why else should we conserve the environment? And if depleting the natural resources is necessary for life improvement, why not exhaust it? †¢ Is the loss of biodiversity, destruction of scenic geographical features for human benefit such as in agriculture so harmful to man? Where is the need to conserve a species while it has no chance of survival in the near future due to changes in earth’s patterns? †¢ Is it right for a person to own land, it being a natural resource among others, or is it morally wrong?  Is it fair that 5% of the human population use 30% of natural resources, while in other less countries the population suffers due to lack of the basic resources such as food and clean water? Do these resources exist for the benefit of a few or should they be left free for use by all? †¢ Is it possible for human beings to improve nature, seeing how man seems to have no control over nature when it comes to events such as natural calamities? †¢ Do recent developments in technology relieve us of our duty of protecting the environment? For instance, does biotechnology with potential to create new species, or bring back an extinct species, relieve us of the duty to conserve the biodiversity? Or alternative sources of fuel give us a right to deplete the natural fuel reserve? †¢ Should we let nature take its course as it always has or try and preserve it without assurance that this is of any benefit, or that this only hinders the course of nature? Is there any way that nature can take care of itself without our hand, like self renewal? The main issue surrounding environmental ethics today is the activist movements on environmental protection that focus people on the wrong issues, that is the moral standing is more emotional than factual or logical. The following are essential in discussing environmental ethics and policies. Western Religion and Culture It has been viewed by some philosophers that the Western religion has adversely affected the environment as it teaches that human beings have dominion over the earth and subdue it. Others view this as a command to take care of nature as we have been left in charge. The command given in the bible to the first man â€Å"be fruitful and fill the earth† (Genesis 1:28, Holy Bible KJV) raises the question of population control, is it ethical for the sake of the environment or is it a direct defiance of God’s command? To address this sensitive topic, religion should be understood in context. At the time of the command there was only one man on earth, so he was required to ‘fill’ it, but now the earth is already ‘filled’. Is it logical to still apply the very same principles now as they did then? The culture of a people defines how they relate to and use the environment. Many of the historic events that shape the western culture have had a huge impact on the environment. Events such as the industrial revolution, technological advances and the modern culture have affected the environment. Culture can easily adapt to changing environments, as well as cause permanent change to different environments. The environment is very wide and continuous, while cultural practices are defined by the environment. Therefore it is ethical to put environment before culture, and change current lifestyles towards more nature friendly practices. The future generation Most of the damage to the environment is more likely to affect the future human population. This therefore calls on the currently living humans to consider the rights of those who are not yet born. We might not know exactly what that generation will require but we are well aware of the basic needs of living beings; food shelter and basic health. Based on these we can have a model of what the environment should offer the future human beings. Therefore it is our moral obligation to them to utilize nature as much as we need to but ensure that we do not deny them the enjoyment of the same. Animals Other animals should be considered when addressing environmental ethics, since they are sentient beings, that is are capable of feeling. Although animals come after humans, they have rights and should be considered according to what they are interested in, such as feeding, living in their natural habitat, and allowed their existence. Controversy about animal rights arises in what animals exactly should we grant rights to. For instance, are insects or other smaller animals in this category? Is it right to use animals for laboratory research for medical and other studies to better our lives? The simple answer to this question is that unless it is extremely necessary, animals should not be put at risk or in adverse conditions. The harm to animals should be justified and be limited to a certain allowable level. Ecofeminism Women are seen to be closer and more in touch with nature; this is claimed by feminists concerned with the environment (Cochrane, 2007). This is because of their ability to give life, and the fact that the earth is considered female (Shiva, 1993). Thus this gives them a better understanding of nature and how to coexist in harmony. Val Plumwood, an ecofeminist believe, that feminism should go hand in hand with environmentalism as both women and the environment are under the same oppression. Another feminist argues that the problem is in trying to justify this kind of oppression thus allowing such subordination. When considering environmental ethics and policies, the domination over women and nature is a critical issue that requires attention. Economics and Ecology Economics and ecology usually appear as counter forces. Economy involves trying to allocate the limited resources while ecology looks out to protect these resources. The ever growing human population has placed great pressure on nature and thus their distribution is highly competitive. Market forces have added more pressure to natural resources and their exploitation. Rapid growth of industries has contributed to environmental deterioration. The cost-benefit considers questions like; if nuclear power makes electricity cheaper, should this field be ventured? What is the cost of preserving a forest compared to the cost of exporting timber? These raise challenges when setting up policies on the environment because of the question of cost versus the benefit of environmental ethics. Technology Technology has had a huge impact on human life as well as on the environment. The effects of technology are both beneficial and adverse. The medical, agricultural, communication and energy industries rely heavily on technology to better human life. Technology has the power to destroy nature as well as replenish it. The technological advances that are most potentially harmful include nuclear technology that is able to annihilate nature and biotechnology which has the potential to alter the natural species boundaries. Since all technologies come with potential risks along with their benefits, ethical consideration must be made with regards to the environment. Conclusion  In studying environmental ethics, the first thing is to ask the question ‘what should be done about the current environmental situation and how should it be done? ’ The other consideration is the importance of individual natural resources and how much effort and cost we should dedicate to protecting such. This should be based on facts and not feelings, like and dislikes. It is important that policies be based on an integrated system that has in mind all the components of nature, as well as involvement of the government, institutions and other countries.

Customer Relationship Management Systems

Customer Relationship Management Systems Abstract: Customer Relationship Management (CRM) focuses on customer retention through development of sustainable relationships. Establishment of these relationships is based on customer satisfaction and an organisations ability to sustain high standards that identify them from competitors. CRM is also concerned with attracting new customers. In order to ensure customer satisfaction, there is need to understand customer requirements through studies which is essentially the function of CRM. Evolution of information technology has given rise to CRM systems which make this function even easier so that long-term profitability resulting from customer loyalty and cost cutting is realized. The use of these systems has proved invaluable so that higher education institutions are highly being encouraged to make use of them in order to enhance their ability to retain existing customers and attract new customers. Executive summary The use of Customer Relationship Management Systems is a strategy that has been received with high levels of enthusiasm in the business world. Many businesses have embraced the use of Customer Relationship Management Systems; simply known as CRM systems to enhance satisfaction of existing customers and to attract new customers. This has been referred to as a shift from transaction-specific to cumulative customer oriented satisfaction through incorporating information technology in CRM. CRM systems are attributed to the growing concept of customer-centrism which focuses more on customer satisfaction to increase profitability. Institutions of higher learning have not been left behind and several of them have already turned to the use of these systems. The high level of competitiveness in institutions of higher learning as more investments are made in the sector has prompted them to adopt more proactive approaches to customer attraction and retention. Constant changes in customer expectations and demands have also played a big role in the adoption of these systems in order to help in meeting these needs. It is however notable that many institutions are still stuck with the traditional manual system of customer care. This is mostly due to the unavailability of funds or ignorance of the benefits that they are likely to obtain from CRM systems. This paper aims at filling this knowledge gap so that institutions of higher learning may realize how much they stand to gain from investing in CRM systems. It clearly demonstrates how they can use these systems to retain existing customers and recruit new ones. A study conducted in various universities and colleges revealed that customers would appreciate the use of CRM systems which would ensure that their queries are solved efficiently. The fact that CRM could help in saving time made it even more important to the customers. The study which incorporated high school seniors, university and college students, parents, staff and alumni in a study sample made note of the importance that customers placed on efficiency citing that long procedures are tiring and demoralising. Most respondents were quick to note that websites eliminate a great deal of unnecessary inquiries since most of the information required about the institution was likely to be available from the website. This way they did not have to contact the administration when they had questions. This study reveals that the use of CRM could actually save institutions from the unnecessary expenses resulting from customer dissatisfaction. This is done through the identification of customer needs which are then assimilated into the institutions strategy to meet these needs. This way, complaints are eliminated which saves the institution from loss of customers and loss of money. Stefanou and Sarmaniotis (2003: 623) note that dissatisfaction of customers is not only costly to the institution but to the customer as well. When a customer loses in a deal, the probability that he or she will utilize an organisations services again is greatly reduced. CRM systems could help institutions of higher learning to cut on their costs significantly thereby improving their profitability. In the study, the question of costs is raised and it is considered one of the limiting factors towards the acquisition of CRM systems. On the same note however, the study establishes that the cost involved in the acquisition is worth considering the benefits that the institution is likely to obtain in the long-run once the system is in place. In concluding the study, the need for caution during the selection of CRM systems to be used in the institutions is also emphasised. Chapter 1 Introduction/Background 1.10 Statement of the problem Institutions of higher learning are often overwhelmed by the high numbers of customers that they have to handle. Consequently, they end up not satisfying every customers need and instead opt for ways to collectively address customer needs. This however could be detrimental to the institutions because needs vary from one customer to the other. Further, there is a risk of losing customers as a result of the high number of colleges and universities that have emerged thereby raising the level of competition. In public institutions, it is common for customers who are mainly students being taken for granted. The administration is likely to be tempted to assume that it is the students who require education and hence demand their services and not vise versa. Conant (2003: 3) however notes that this kind of ignorance could culminate into deleterious effects on the institutions performance and even loss of customers. This according to Cleary (2001: 33) would be quite unfortunate because even t he best institution is ineffective when its customer focus is lost. Every student, parent, alumni and any other type of customer that the institutions serve is of great importance and deserves to be treated right. For this reason, understanding their needs and integrating this with the company strategy to better satisfy them is quite inevitable. Whenever such kind of a proposition is put forward, several questions are bound to arise: What options do institutions of higher learning have in ensuring that their customers needs are properly taken care of? Can any given institution cope with the ever changing customer needs in order to satisfy them? What about the ever rising levels of competition? Which is the right criterion to address these issues? Is it possible to gain positive results from their implementation? How much will it cost the institution? These are some of the problems and queries that this paper seeks to demystify. Many options are available when a company needs to meet its customers needs. A customer care strategy that caters for the present as well as the future needs of customers is what any modern organisation requires in order to survive the rising levels of competition. The most recent strategy and whose popularity is growing at a high rate among organizations not necessarily in the education sector is the use of customer relationship management systems. As put forth by various studies, customer relationship management systems will undoubtedly help in the provision of better services, management of existing customers and recruitment of new ones in higher education institutions. A proper understanding is however necessary if these institutions are to use CRM systems as their customer care strategy. This study is therefore justifiable and its findings will come in handy in ensuring that higher education institutions can manage their customers better. 1.20 Justification of the study Increase in competition among institutions of higher learning has been on the rise hence the need for strategies aimed at retaining current customers and attracting new ones. Just like in any other business entity, institutions must aim at satisfying their customers. This way, they are assured of increased profitability. This study will form a discussion on customer relationship management which is in essence a sophisticated way of ensuring customer satisfaction through establishment of sustainable customer relationships. This study could therefore be of great importance to institutions of higher learning which have not yet embraced the use of CRM systems into their programs. There is a general agreement that technology is advancing at a high rate and that customers are now turning towards information contained on the internet to make their purchasing decisions (Bull, 2003: 593-594). This new trend calls for a change in strategies used by companies to attract and retain new customers. By the use of the internet, customers can now get information about products and services, their prices and unique characteristics which they can then compare to others available over the internet. Making such information available over the internet is therefore very vital in todays business world. This applies perfectly to prospective students and staff who are likely to make use of the internet information to make important decisions about their school of choice. By making use of CRM systems, institutions are able to attract new customers and their customer base can be improved. A study focusing on the importance of CRM systems which are basically computer-based strategies is therefore justifiable as it will help institutions to better understanding of its working and importance. 1.30. Objectives of the study To make this study plausible in addressing the research issues and concerns, several objectives were set to guide the study. The major objective was to determine characteristics of customer relationship management systems that make them useful to higher education institutions and why institutions should adopt them to improve their competitiveness. Other objectives included: To find out whether costs of CRM systems impact on organisation ability to attain the systems. To establish whether there are any risks involved in the use of CRM systems. 1.40. Research questions What constitutes of customer satisfaction according to customer satisfaction theories? Does ensuring customer satisfaction contribute to the business effectiveness, productivity and profitability? What is meant by Customer Relationship Management Systems? Is there a relationship between Customer Relationship Management and customer satisfaction? Are they useful in higher education institutions? If so, how can they benefit from adopting Customer Relationship Management Systems? 1.50. Methodology outline This study makes the use of reliable sources of information through conducting interviews and using secondary data from previous studies conducted by various scholars in the same field. By making use of an example of Imperial College, this study will show that adopting the use of CRM systems could lead to a tremendous transformation in an institutions service delivery. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1. The customer satisfaction theory 2.1.1. Customer satisfaction Customer satisfaction forms the core in the attraction and retention of customers into a business. It is for this reason that customer satisfaction is often considered very vital for business survival. Customer satisfaction is used to refer to contentment, happiness or well-being of an organisations customers (Anderson, 1973: 38). It is all about doing what is desirable to a customer. In the classical definition however, the degree of correspondence between a customers expectations and what is actually provided in the perceived product or service is what constitutes customer satisfaction (Stefanou and Sarmaniotis, 2006: 619). Should the service or product exceed expectations or just fulfil it, customer satisfaction is deemed to have occurred. The level of at which the product meets the customers needs then determines whether the customer is satisfied, moderately satisfied, highly satisfied and so on. Depending on the customers attitude, this could work well towards improving the busi ness customer loyalty. If a product or service is below the customers expectations, dissatisfaction occurs and the probability of losing the customer to competitors increases (Anderson, 1973: 38-39). In measuring customer satisfaction, a comparison between the expected and the perceived quality are objectively compared. The expected quality is what the customer expects from the company and which should be provided by the company. It is what represent the customers wishes, expectations and needs and is referred to as the Should factor (Wilson 1991: 152). On the other hand, what the business actually gives the customer is what is referred to as the perceived quality. Perceived quality is known as the is factor (Wilson, 1991: 152). The basic factors are those referred to as must have aspects or dissatisfiers. Basic factors do not afford the customer any satisfaction and they are deemed to be obvious. In other words, the characteristic is in essence what the customer wants and if this is not there then he would not even buy the product or service in the first place (Croteau, 2003: 25-26). For example, any customer will expect that an institution of higher learning provides education as a prerequisite and is bound to take this for granted. This characteristic does not trigger any sort of excitement from the customer as it is considered normal (Kano, Seraku and Tkahashi, 1984: 40). It is other factors that drive the excitement towards making a particular choice. This leads us to the excitement factors which are also known as satisfiers. These factors are the attractive characteristics of a good or service meant to generate delight in the customer (Croteau, 2003: 26). They are also considered as the factors that di stinguish an organisation from its competitors. It is these same features and characteristics that an organisation should emphasise on when advertising their goods to prospective customers so that they choose them over their competitors. Finally, the performance factors serve the purpose of providing the explicit needs of the customer (Conant, 2003: 7). When the performance is high or when the customers needs are completely met, the result is customer satisfaction. If there is low level of performance however, customer dissatisfaction results and this could cause detrimental effects on the company through loss of customers. 2.1.2. Significance of customer satisfaction Numerous empirical findings are of the view that customer satisfaction forms the basis of establishing competitive advantage. It is through customer satisfaction that the business can be assured of a bright future through repeat sales (Kano, Seraku, Takahashi and Tsuji, 1984: 39-41). Customer satisfaction helps to gain loyalty and hence retain current customers besides attracting new customers to a company. Unsatisfied customers are likely to leave because as Wilson (1991: 156) notes, only four out of every one hundred customers come back to complain. Instead, they go on and switch companies opting to keep the discontentment to themselves. This is to mean that satisfaction is extremely vital for the survival of any business and should therefore be highly regarded. Stefanou and Sarmaniotis, 2003: 619) contend with the fact that retaining the existing customers is much easier than attracting new ones hence the need to build strong customer relationships through striving to satisfy thei r needs and meeting their expectations. Consumer satisfaction is therefore vital for any organisations success and should be taken seriously. With this kind of knowledge, business strategies are now being inclined towards customer satisfaction. To do this, Customer Relationship Management has been embraced by many businesses (Grant and Anderson, 2002: 36; Conant, 2003: 21; Light, 2003: 607; Kirker, 1994: 12). Recommendations made by customers are said to attract almost the same number of customers that the business attracts on its own. This happens through recommendations. Wilson (1991: 103) notes that every satisfied customer is bound to say something positive about the product to her friends and relatives. These individuals could eventually end up being loyal customers to the business thus increasing customer base. Dissatisfied customers will complain and talk ill of the product or service such that prospective customers are discouraged and may never take the companys product following negative remarks from those that had used it before (Wilson, 1991: 157). 2.2. Understanding Customer Relationship Management The survival of any business is to a large extent determined by the level of customer satisfaction. This understanding has seen the rise in the customer-centrism strategy as a means to retain and attract new customers (Patterson, 2007: 5-6). The rise in globalization has led to high levels of competition so that every business must work towards addressing customer needs to keep them from turning to competitors. According to Oliver (1996: 88) customers are likely to move to competitors if they feel that they are not obtaining what they want. Loss of customers could be detrimental since a business cannot exist without customers. In this kind of competition for customers, the notion of Customer Relationship Management (CRM) has gained an important role in business management. Light (2003: 603-604) refers to CRM simply as the management of company-customer relationships while Stefanou and Sarmaniotis (2003: 617) call it relationship marketing. Seeman and OHara (2006: 25) add that CRM aim s at increasing customer satisfaction by customizing the service provided to each consumer. Further, Seeman and OHara refer to CRM as the process by which business information and consumer information are brought together through a centralized system. Major components of CRM include communication management, marketing, recruitment, customer support and service among others. It is a strategy that places the customer as the major focus in the organisation. Stefanou and Sarmaniotis (2003: 613-617) refers this as a customer-centric strategy where understanding the customer life cycle is essential. There is also need to understand the ever changing customer needs triggered by changes in lifestyles and income changes. CRM has often been described as a shift from the transaction-specific to cumulative customer satisfaction through relational orientation (Raab, 2008: 132). In order to satisfy this prerequisite, CRM has been divided into two major procedures; the operational function and the analytical function. While the operational function involves the collection of data from customers, the analytical function is concerned with analysis of data in order to understand the customer needs so that they can be effectively addressed (Peelen, 2005: 63). Data can be collected through the use of interviews and questionnaires, customer feedback, complaints and physical reactions among others. Using this kind of information, the customer service department can easily determine whether customers are satisfied with their products or not (Kirker, 1994: 14). If they are not satisfied, strategies aimed at addressing the various needs must be formulated. With the increasing level of globalisation, technological advances are being strongly felt in the business world. Further, customer relationships have become more complex due to consumer mobility and the rise of suburbs (Milliron, 2001: 52). Customer tastes and preferences are changing by the day as people embrace the modern world. In response to this, more companies have taken up technology-led techniques to further enhance their performance. It is for this reason that the CRM systems have emerged and companies are now turning from the manual CRM to computerised CRM. 2.3. Customer relationship management systems The use of Customer Relationship Management in institutions of higher learning is a relatively new genre of technology operations whose popularity is growing at a high rate (Light, 2003: 605). The application which is computer-based has aided in making sure that the relationship between customers and businesses can be effectively managed (Peelan, 2005: 79). Information Technology advances have been a catalyst in customer relationship management systems. Traditional analysis of data is slowly becoming outdated and the use of software to perform such duties is being adopted by the day. CRM systems have gained widespread popularity especially with the so called forward thinking managers(Croteau, 2003, 29). These systems not only analyze customer needs effectively but also make work easier for managers thus saving the time required for data analysis. Bradshaw and Brash (2001: 522) define CRM systems as a combination of discrete software tools which serve the purpose of enhancing customer satisfaction, reducing costs, identifying new opportunities, increasing revenue and attraction new customers among others. They note that organisations have no reason to fear initial costs of acquiring these systems because the benefits to be gained in the long-run exceed the costs incurred in the acquisition. Research shows that sophisticated technology has brought about the emergence of more advanced CRM systems (Milliron, 2001: 51). Further, it is notable that organisations that are currently using these sophisticated CRM technologies are gaining competitive advantage over their competitors who make use of basic data collection approaches (Abbott, Stone and Buttle, 2001: 27). Information Technology has aided companies to effectively customise their customer care procedures so as to ensure that they are well served. Following the emergence of CRM which aims at individualising customer needs, companies are now demanding technologies which make it easier to keep records about individual customers. This eliminates high numbers of record which have to be retrieved every time a customer visits the business (Bull, 2003: 31).Using the various CRM systems available in the market, it is possible for companies to collect all available data about a certain customer which is then saved in the company database. Whenever an enquiry is made by this customer, the customer care representative just needs to feed the necessary details in the database to retrieve everything about the consumer (Grant and Anderson, 2002: 26). This way, it is becomes easier to address these customers needs depending on the situation at hand. The use of web technology is one of the most prevalent applications of CRM technology (Milliron, 2001: 52). Savvy managers have realised the high rate at which the world is suddenly becoming computerized. The ease of internet navigation and development of broadband services has turned customers into active internet users. To maximise on this, internet marketing has emerged with more companies now displaying their goods in popular web pages such as networking sites (Kotler and Fox, 1995:96). It is not only the goods that they advertise on the internet however, websites containing company information have been developed so that customers can easily access any information they desire from the website (Light, 2003: 605). Most websites often have customer inquiry sections where questions can be asked and complaints deposited (Light, 2003: 606). The use of chat rooms to answer customer questions directly from the help care desk is also used in certain sophisticated websites. While websites are likely to serve customers who are already familiar with the company, new ways of directing prospective customers have been established. In popular web pages for example, clicking on a certain advertised good or service takes the prospective customer to the companys website where he or she can now access more information on about the company and other goods and services offered by the company. This is to mean that while company websites were previously used by companies to showcase their activities and other information about the company, they are now doubling up as marketing tools to retain existing employees and obtain new ones (Light, 2003: 606). 2.4. Customer relations in institutions of higher education Starting the mid-80s and into the late 90s, many higher education institutions engaged themselves in restructuring and engineering their administrative operations so that costs were reduced and consequently better services could be provided (Grant and Anderson, 2002: 24). The focus is slowly shifting from these operational changes meant to improve service delivery to identification of customer needs. These needs are then being used to identify the areas that need to be improved in order to effectively satisfy customers. This has been described as a proactive action because institutions can learn what their customers want then work towards satisfying these needs before they lose them to other institutions which meet such needs (Bull, 2003: 593). Customer relationship management (CRM) is fast gaining popularity as more institutions realize that maintaining healthy relationships with customers is vital for business success. Organisations that make use of customer relationship management report increased sales resulting from the good relationships established with their customers (Croteau, 2003: 29). Customer relations management (CRM) enables the analysis of past customer behaviour in a bid to anticipate future trends and hence do everything in their capacity to ensure that customer needs are met. While many institutions have embraced CRM, few have ventured into the use of customer relationship management technologies (Conant, 2003: 3-5). For some, it is because of inadequate information about customer relationship management (CRM) systems while for others is because of fear of initial costs associated with installing such systems. Seeman and OHara (2006: 26) note that at least 75 percent of the students entering higher education institutions have a substantial exposure to technology. The new generation of students are described as technology savvy students due to their undeniable contact with technology. As a result, their expectations about technology resources available in the institutions are very high (Milliron, 2001: 16). From what they have learnt over the internet and other technology literature, technology has been used to make procedures easier for customers unlike when manual systems were used. In their minds, institutions of higher learning should fall under this group that has acquired these systems in order to serve them better. Their absence therefore could frustrate their expectations which could culminate to serious consequences (Croteau, 2003, 31). For existing students, they could change schools and discourage their counterparts from joining the school. The use of CRM also serves the purpose of unifying the university or college administration such that the needs of customers can be catered for without having to move from one office to another. Many businesses today have now introduced websites through which they serve their customers needs. In the same trend, colleges and universities should take on this innovative method of communication to reach out to their customers without necessarily requiring them to visit the institution physically (Kotler and Fox, 1995: 96). This reduces physical and geographical barriers through providing all the information that current and potential customers would like to know about the institution. In designing a website, the technician involved must collect all the information that the institution wishes to put on the site (Milliron, 2001: 17). This information is then arranged in such a way that given links can lead the customer to the desired departments so as to access the required information. Chapter 3 Methodology Introduction This section of the paper quantifies the ability of the study to effectively satisfy the set objectives. Besides giving the procedures, methods and samples used in the study, it also outlines major limitations faced during the study. 3.1. Research scope The essence of this study is to establish whether Customer Relationship Management Systems could be of help to higher education institutions. As such, the study delimits itself to the role of customer relationships in institutions of higher learning. The importance of Customer Relationship Management systems forms the basis for this study and hence the advantages of this strategy form a core subject of the study. Due to the large geographical coverage of institutions and financial constraints, only schools in Madrid and Canterbia in Spain were used for the study. 3.2. Data and data collection Collection of data forms influences the outcome of the study to a large extent. For this reason, the data collection procedure was applied in the best way possible to enhance efficiency and to give the most accurate results. Both primary and secondary data were applied in the study. a) Primary data Factual information from the respondents was vital in making effective conclusions. To obtain this information, two separate types of questionnaires were set. These focused on current customers and potential customers. For simplicity, senior high school students who are most likely going to join universities and colleges after graduating were interviewed to determine the qualities they considered important in a college. Further, they were required to suggest the various components they would like incorporated in the college and university CRM systems. Current customers included students at colleges, staff, parents and alumni. The questionnaire directed at this group was aimed at finding out the application of CRM in their schools and how they thought it could be better improved to by incorporating technology. For those whose schools had already adopted CRM systems, they were asked to give the advantages they had witnessed and the difference with what they heard from colleagues in oth er schools not using CRM systems. Questionnaire were read out and filled by the researcher as the respondent gave their views. b) Secondary data Equally important was the use of secondary data which gave the study a theoretical background. Without the use of books, journals and periodicals among other written works, there was no way of justifying the concept of Customer Relationship Management Systems. The literature review in particular was solely dependent on previously published works. As such, secondary data was highly employed in the study. 3.3. Sample selection, technique, and size The study sample consisted of ten college students, ten university students, twenty high school seniors, twenty staff members and a random selection of twenty parents and alumni of various colleges and universities. Due to the large population of probable respondents, a method for selecting a sample had to be identified. The strategic sampling method was used to identify respondents for the study. 3.4. Ethics of the research methodology Before the beginning of the study, an objective of reducing respondents compromise as far as possible was set. The views contained in the questionnaires were for research purposes only and no third party was allowed to come into contact with them. With such an assurance, respondents felt free to give out information considered sensitive. For privacy purposes, no respondent was required to give out his or her name during the interviews. This raised confidentiality as required in scholarly research. 3.5. Limitations of the study As mu Customer Relationship Management Systems Customer Relationship Management Systems Abstract: Customer Relationship Management (CRM) focuses on customer retention through development of sustainable relationships. Establishment of these relationships is based on customer satisfaction and an organisations ability to sustain high standards that identify them from competitors. CRM is also concerned with attracting new customers. In order to ensure customer satisfaction, there is need to understand customer requirements through studies which is essentially the function of CRM. Evolution of information technology has given rise to CRM systems which make this function even easier so that long-term profitability resulting from customer loyalty and cost cutting is realized. The use of these systems has proved invaluable so that higher education institutions are highly being encouraged to make use of them in order to enhance their ability to retain existing customers and attract new customers. Executive summary The use of Customer Relationship Management Systems is a strategy that has been received with high levels of enthusiasm in the business world. Many businesses have embraced the use of Customer Relationship Management Systems; simply known as CRM systems to enhance satisfaction of existing customers and to attract new customers. This has been referred to as a shift from transaction-specific to cumulative customer oriented satisfaction through incorporating information technology in CRM. CRM systems are attributed to the growing concept of customer-centrism which focuses more on customer satisfaction to increase profitability. Institutions of higher learning have not been left behind and several of them have already turned to the use of these systems. The high level of competitiveness in institutions of higher learning as more investments are made in the sector has prompted them to adopt more proactive approaches to customer attraction and retention. Constant changes in customer expectations and demands have also played a big role in the adoption of these systems in order to help in meeting these needs. It is however notable that many institutions are still stuck with the traditional manual system of customer care. This is mostly due to the unavailability of funds or ignorance of the benefits that they are likely to obtain from CRM systems. This paper aims at filling this knowledge gap so that institutions of higher learning may realize how much they stand to gain from investing in CRM systems. It clearly demonstrates how they can use these systems to retain existing customers and recruit new ones. A study conducted in various universities and colleges revealed that customers would appreciate the use of CRM systems which would ensure that their queries are solved efficiently. The fact that CRM could help in saving time made it even more important to the customers. The study which incorporated high school seniors, university and college students, parents, staff and alumni in a study sample made note of the importance that customers placed on efficiency citing that long procedures are tiring and demoralising. Most respondents were quick to note that websites eliminate a great deal of unnecessary inquiries since most of the information required about the institution was likely to be available from the website. This way they did not have to contact the administration when they had questions. This study reveals that the use of CRM could actually save institutions from the unnecessary expenses resulting from customer dissatisfaction. This is done through the identification of customer needs which are then assimilated into the institutions strategy to meet these needs. This way, complaints are eliminated which saves the institution from loss of customers and loss of money. Stefanou and Sarmaniotis (2003: 623) note that dissatisfaction of customers is not only costly to the institution but to the customer as well. When a customer loses in a deal, the probability that he or she will utilize an organisations services again is greatly reduced. CRM systems could help institutions of higher learning to cut on their costs significantly thereby improving their profitability. In the study, the question of costs is raised and it is considered one of the limiting factors towards the acquisition of CRM systems. On the same note however, the study establishes that the cost involved in the acquisition is worth considering the benefits that the institution is likely to obtain in the long-run once the system is in place. In concluding the study, the need for caution during the selection of CRM systems to be used in the institutions is also emphasised. Chapter 1 Introduction/Background 1.10 Statement of the problem Institutions of higher learning are often overwhelmed by the high numbers of customers that they have to handle. Consequently, they end up not satisfying every customers need and instead opt for ways to collectively address customer needs. This however could be detrimental to the institutions because needs vary from one customer to the other. Further, there is a risk of losing customers as a result of the high number of colleges and universities that have emerged thereby raising the level of competition. In public institutions, it is common for customers who are mainly students being taken for granted. The administration is likely to be tempted to assume that it is the students who require education and hence demand their services and not vise versa. Conant (2003: 3) however notes that this kind of ignorance could culminate into deleterious effects on the institutions performance and even loss of customers. This according to Cleary (2001: 33) would be quite unfortunate because even t he best institution is ineffective when its customer focus is lost. Every student, parent, alumni and any other type of customer that the institutions serve is of great importance and deserves to be treated right. For this reason, understanding their needs and integrating this with the company strategy to better satisfy them is quite inevitable. Whenever such kind of a proposition is put forward, several questions are bound to arise: What options do institutions of higher learning have in ensuring that their customers needs are properly taken care of? Can any given institution cope with the ever changing customer needs in order to satisfy them? What about the ever rising levels of competition? Which is the right criterion to address these issues? Is it possible to gain positive results from their implementation? How much will it cost the institution? These are some of the problems and queries that this paper seeks to demystify. Many options are available when a company needs to meet its customers needs. A customer care strategy that caters for the present as well as the future needs of customers is what any modern organisation requires in order to survive the rising levels of competition. The most recent strategy and whose popularity is growing at a high rate among organizations not necessarily in the education sector is the use of customer relationship management systems. As put forth by various studies, customer relationship management systems will undoubtedly help in the provision of better services, management of existing customers and recruitment of new ones in higher education institutions. A proper understanding is however necessary if these institutions are to use CRM systems as their customer care strategy. This study is therefore justifiable and its findings will come in handy in ensuring that higher education institutions can manage their customers better. 1.20 Justification of the study Increase in competition among institutions of higher learning has been on the rise hence the need for strategies aimed at retaining current customers and attracting new ones. Just like in any other business entity, institutions must aim at satisfying their customers. This way, they are assured of increased profitability. This study will form a discussion on customer relationship management which is in essence a sophisticated way of ensuring customer satisfaction through establishment of sustainable customer relationships. This study could therefore be of great importance to institutions of higher learning which have not yet embraced the use of CRM systems into their programs. There is a general agreement that technology is advancing at a high rate and that customers are now turning towards information contained on the internet to make their purchasing decisions (Bull, 2003: 593-594). This new trend calls for a change in strategies used by companies to attract and retain new customers. By the use of the internet, customers can now get information about products and services, their prices and unique characteristics which they can then compare to others available over the internet. Making such information available over the internet is therefore very vital in todays business world. This applies perfectly to prospective students and staff who are likely to make use of the internet information to make important decisions about their school of choice. By making use of CRM systems, institutions are able to attract new customers and their customer base can be improved. A study focusing on the importance of CRM systems which are basically computer-based strategies is therefore justifiable as it will help institutions to better understanding of its working and importance. 1.30. Objectives of the study To make this study plausible in addressing the research issues and concerns, several objectives were set to guide the study. The major objective was to determine characteristics of customer relationship management systems that make them useful to higher education institutions and why institutions should adopt them to improve their competitiveness. Other objectives included: To find out whether costs of CRM systems impact on organisation ability to attain the systems. To establish whether there are any risks involved in the use of CRM systems. 1.40. Research questions What constitutes of customer satisfaction according to customer satisfaction theories? Does ensuring customer satisfaction contribute to the business effectiveness, productivity and profitability? What is meant by Customer Relationship Management Systems? Is there a relationship between Customer Relationship Management and customer satisfaction? Are they useful in higher education institutions? If so, how can they benefit from adopting Customer Relationship Management Systems? 1.50. Methodology outline This study makes the use of reliable sources of information through conducting interviews and using secondary data from previous studies conducted by various scholars in the same field. By making use of an example of Imperial College, this study will show that adopting the use of CRM systems could lead to a tremendous transformation in an institutions service delivery. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1. The customer satisfaction theory 2.1.1. Customer satisfaction Customer satisfaction forms the core in the attraction and retention of customers into a business. It is for this reason that customer satisfaction is often considered very vital for business survival. Customer satisfaction is used to refer to contentment, happiness or well-being of an organisations customers (Anderson, 1973: 38). It is all about doing what is desirable to a customer. In the classical definition however, the degree of correspondence between a customers expectations and what is actually provided in the perceived product or service is what constitutes customer satisfaction (Stefanou and Sarmaniotis, 2006: 619). Should the service or product exceed expectations or just fulfil it, customer satisfaction is deemed to have occurred. The level of at which the product meets the customers needs then determines whether the customer is satisfied, moderately satisfied, highly satisfied and so on. Depending on the customers attitude, this could work well towards improving the busi ness customer loyalty. If a product or service is below the customers expectations, dissatisfaction occurs and the probability of losing the customer to competitors increases (Anderson, 1973: 38-39). In measuring customer satisfaction, a comparison between the expected and the perceived quality are objectively compared. The expected quality is what the customer expects from the company and which should be provided by the company. It is what represent the customers wishes, expectations and needs and is referred to as the Should factor (Wilson 1991: 152). On the other hand, what the business actually gives the customer is what is referred to as the perceived quality. Perceived quality is known as the is factor (Wilson, 1991: 152). The basic factors are those referred to as must have aspects or dissatisfiers. Basic factors do not afford the customer any satisfaction and they are deemed to be obvious. In other words, the characteristic is in essence what the customer wants and if this is not there then he would not even buy the product or service in the first place (Croteau, 2003: 25-26). For example, any customer will expect that an institution of higher learning provides education as a prerequisite and is bound to take this for granted. This characteristic does not trigger any sort of excitement from the customer as it is considered normal (Kano, Seraku and Tkahashi, 1984: 40). It is other factors that drive the excitement towards making a particular choice. This leads us to the excitement factors which are also known as satisfiers. These factors are the attractive characteristics of a good or service meant to generate delight in the customer (Croteau, 2003: 26). They are also considered as the factors that di stinguish an organisation from its competitors. It is these same features and characteristics that an organisation should emphasise on when advertising their goods to prospective customers so that they choose them over their competitors. Finally, the performance factors serve the purpose of providing the explicit needs of the customer (Conant, 2003: 7). When the performance is high or when the customers needs are completely met, the result is customer satisfaction. If there is low level of performance however, customer dissatisfaction results and this could cause detrimental effects on the company through loss of customers. 2.1.2. Significance of customer satisfaction Numerous empirical findings are of the view that customer satisfaction forms the basis of establishing competitive advantage. It is through customer satisfaction that the business can be assured of a bright future through repeat sales (Kano, Seraku, Takahashi and Tsuji, 1984: 39-41). Customer satisfaction helps to gain loyalty and hence retain current customers besides attracting new customers to a company. Unsatisfied customers are likely to leave because as Wilson (1991: 156) notes, only four out of every one hundred customers come back to complain. Instead, they go on and switch companies opting to keep the discontentment to themselves. This is to mean that satisfaction is extremely vital for the survival of any business and should therefore be highly regarded. Stefanou and Sarmaniotis, 2003: 619) contend with the fact that retaining the existing customers is much easier than attracting new ones hence the need to build strong customer relationships through striving to satisfy thei r needs and meeting their expectations. Consumer satisfaction is therefore vital for any organisations success and should be taken seriously. With this kind of knowledge, business strategies are now being inclined towards customer satisfaction. To do this, Customer Relationship Management has been embraced by many businesses (Grant and Anderson, 2002: 36; Conant, 2003: 21; Light, 2003: 607; Kirker, 1994: 12). Recommendations made by customers are said to attract almost the same number of customers that the business attracts on its own. This happens through recommendations. Wilson (1991: 103) notes that every satisfied customer is bound to say something positive about the product to her friends and relatives. These individuals could eventually end up being loyal customers to the business thus increasing customer base. Dissatisfied customers will complain and talk ill of the product or service such that prospective customers are discouraged and may never take the companys product following negative remarks from those that had used it before (Wilson, 1991: 157). 2.2. Understanding Customer Relationship Management The survival of any business is to a large extent determined by the level of customer satisfaction. This understanding has seen the rise in the customer-centrism strategy as a means to retain and attract new customers (Patterson, 2007: 5-6). The rise in globalization has led to high levels of competition so that every business must work towards addressing customer needs to keep them from turning to competitors. According to Oliver (1996: 88) customers are likely to move to competitors if they feel that they are not obtaining what they want. Loss of customers could be detrimental since a business cannot exist without customers. In this kind of competition for customers, the notion of Customer Relationship Management (CRM) has gained an important role in business management. Light (2003: 603-604) refers to CRM simply as the management of company-customer relationships while Stefanou and Sarmaniotis (2003: 617) call it relationship marketing. Seeman and OHara (2006: 25) add that CRM aim s at increasing customer satisfaction by customizing the service provided to each consumer. Further, Seeman and OHara refer to CRM as the process by which business information and consumer information are brought together through a centralized system. Major components of CRM include communication management, marketing, recruitment, customer support and service among others. It is a strategy that places the customer as the major focus in the organisation. Stefanou and Sarmaniotis (2003: 613-617) refers this as a customer-centric strategy where understanding the customer life cycle is essential. There is also need to understand the ever changing customer needs triggered by changes in lifestyles and income changes. CRM has often been described as a shift from the transaction-specific to cumulative customer satisfaction through relational orientation (Raab, 2008: 132). In order to satisfy this prerequisite, CRM has been divided into two major procedures; the operational function and the analytical function. While the operational function involves the collection of data from customers, the analytical function is concerned with analysis of data in order to understand the customer needs so that they can be effectively addressed (Peelen, 2005: 63). Data can be collected through the use of interviews and questionnaires, customer feedback, complaints and physical reactions among others. Using this kind of information, the customer service department can easily determine whether customers are satisfied with their products or not (Kirker, 1994: 14). If they are not satisfied, strategies aimed at addressing the various needs must be formulated. With the increasing level of globalisation, technological advances are being strongly felt in the business world. Further, customer relationships have become more complex due to consumer mobility and the rise of suburbs (Milliron, 2001: 52). Customer tastes and preferences are changing by the day as people embrace the modern world. In response to this, more companies have taken up technology-led techniques to further enhance their performance. It is for this reason that the CRM systems have emerged and companies are now turning from the manual CRM to computerised CRM. 2.3. Customer relationship management systems The use of Customer Relationship Management in institutions of higher learning is a relatively new genre of technology operations whose popularity is growing at a high rate (Light, 2003: 605). The application which is computer-based has aided in making sure that the relationship between customers and businesses can be effectively managed (Peelan, 2005: 79). Information Technology advances have been a catalyst in customer relationship management systems. Traditional analysis of data is slowly becoming outdated and the use of software to perform such duties is being adopted by the day. CRM systems have gained widespread popularity especially with the so called forward thinking managers(Croteau, 2003, 29). These systems not only analyze customer needs effectively but also make work easier for managers thus saving the time required for data analysis. Bradshaw and Brash (2001: 522) define CRM systems as a combination of discrete software tools which serve the purpose of enhancing customer satisfaction, reducing costs, identifying new opportunities, increasing revenue and attraction new customers among others. They note that organisations have no reason to fear initial costs of acquiring these systems because the benefits to be gained in the long-run exceed the costs incurred in the acquisition. Research shows that sophisticated technology has brought about the emergence of more advanced CRM systems (Milliron, 2001: 51). Further, it is notable that organisations that are currently using these sophisticated CRM technologies are gaining competitive advantage over their competitors who make use of basic data collection approaches (Abbott, Stone and Buttle, 2001: 27). Information Technology has aided companies to effectively customise their customer care procedures so as to ensure that they are well served. Following the emergence of CRM which aims at individualising customer needs, companies are now demanding technologies which make it easier to keep records about individual customers. This eliminates high numbers of record which have to be retrieved every time a customer visits the business (Bull, 2003: 31).Using the various CRM systems available in the market, it is possible for companies to collect all available data about a certain customer which is then saved in the company database. Whenever an enquiry is made by this customer, the customer care representative just needs to feed the necessary details in the database to retrieve everything about the consumer (Grant and Anderson, 2002: 26). This way, it is becomes easier to address these customers needs depending on the situation at hand. The use of web technology is one of the most prevalent applications of CRM technology (Milliron, 2001: 52). Savvy managers have realised the high rate at which the world is suddenly becoming computerized. The ease of internet navigation and development of broadband services has turned customers into active internet users. To maximise on this, internet marketing has emerged with more companies now displaying their goods in popular web pages such as networking sites (Kotler and Fox, 1995:96). It is not only the goods that they advertise on the internet however, websites containing company information have been developed so that customers can easily access any information they desire from the website (Light, 2003: 605). Most websites often have customer inquiry sections where questions can be asked and complaints deposited (Light, 2003: 606). The use of chat rooms to answer customer questions directly from the help care desk is also used in certain sophisticated websites. While websites are likely to serve customers who are already familiar with the company, new ways of directing prospective customers have been established. In popular web pages for example, clicking on a certain advertised good or service takes the prospective customer to the companys website where he or she can now access more information on about the company and other goods and services offered by the company. This is to mean that while company websites were previously used by companies to showcase their activities and other information about the company, they are now doubling up as marketing tools to retain existing employees and obtain new ones (Light, 2003: 606). 2.4. Customer relations in institutions of higher education Starting the mid-80s and into the late 90s, many higher education institutions engaged themselves in restructuring and engineering their administrative operations so that costs were reduced and consequently better services could be provided (Grant and Anderson, 2002: 24). The focus is slowly shifting from these operational changes meant to improve service delivery to identification of customer needs. These needs are then being used to identify the areas that need to be improved in order to effectively satisfy customers. This has been described as a proactive action because institutions can learn what their customers want then work towards satisfying these needs before they lose them to other institutions which meet such needs (Bull, 2003: 593). Customer relationship management (CRM) is fast gaining popularity as more institutions realize that maintaining healthy relationships with customers is vital for business success. Organisations that make use of customer relationship management report increased sales resulting from the good relationships established with their customers (Croteau, 2003: 29). Customer relations management (CRM) enables the analysis of past customer behaviour in a bid to anticipate future trends and hence do everything in their capacity to ensure that customer needs are met. While many institutions have embraced CRM, few have ventured into the use of customer relationship management technologies (Conant, 2003: 3-5). For some, it is because of inadequate information about customer relationship management (CRM) systems while for others is because of fear of initial costs associated with installing such systems. Seeman and OHara (2006: 26) note that at least 75 percent of the students entering higher education institutions have a substantial exposure to technology. The new generation of students are described as technology savvy students due to their undeniable contact with technology. As a result, their expectations about technology resources available in the institutions are very high (Milliron, 2001: 16). From what they have learnt over the internet and other technology literature, technology has been used to make procedures easier for customers unlike when manual systems were used. In their minds, institutions of higher learning should fall under this group that has acquired these systems in order to serve them better. Their absence therefore could frustrate their expectations which could culminate to serious consequences (Croteau, 2003, 31). For existing students, they could change schools and discourage their counterparts from joining the school. The use of CRM also serves the purpose of unifying the university or college administration such that the needs of customers can be catered for without having to move from one office to another. Many businesses today have now introduced websites through which they serve their customers needs. In the same trend, colleges and universities should take on this innovative method of communication to reach out to their customers without necessarily requiring them to visit the institution physically (Kotler and Fox, 1995: 96). This reduces physical and geographical barriers through providing all the information that current and potential customers would like to know about the institution. In designing a website, the technician involved must collect all the information that the institution wishes to put on the site (Milliron, 2001: 17). This information is then arranged in such a way that given links can lead the customer to the desired departments so as to access the required information. Chapter 3 Methodology Introduction This section of the paper quantifies the ability of the study to effectively satisfy the set objectives. Besides giving the procedures, methods and samples used in the study, it also outlines major limitations faced during the study. 3.1. Research scope The essence of this study is to establish whether Customer Relationship Management Systems could be of help to higher education institutions. As such, the study delimits itself to the role of customer relationships in institutions of higher learning. The importance of Customer Relationship Management systems forms the basis for this study and hence the advantages of this strategy form a core subject of the study. Due to the large geographical coverage of institutions and financial constraints, only schools in Madrid and Canterbia in Spain were used for the study. 3.2. Data and data collection Collection of data forms influences the outcome of the study to a large extent. For this reason, the data collection procedure was applied in the best way possible to enhance efficiency and to give the most accurate results. Both primary and secondary data were applied in the study. a) Primary data Factual information from the respondents was vital in making effective conclusions. To obtain this information, two separate types of questionnaires were set. These focused on current customers and potential customers. For simplicity, senior high school students who are most likely going to join universities and colleges after graduating were interviewed to determine the qualities they considered important in a college. Further, they were required to suggest the various components they would like incorporated in the college and university CRM systems. Current customers included students at colleges, staff, parents and alumni. The questionnaire directed at this group was aimed at finding out the application of CRM in their schools and how they thought it could be better improved to by incorporating technology. For those whose schools had already adopted CRM systems, they were asked to give the advantages they had witnessed and the difference with what they heard from colleagues in oth er schools not using CRM systems. Questionnaire were read out and filled by the researcher as the respondent gave their views. b) Secondary data Equally important was the use of secondary data which gave the study a theoretical background. Without the use of books, journals and periodicals among other written works, there was no way of justifying the concept of Customer Relationship Management Systems. The literature review in particular was solely dependent on previously published works. As such, secondary data was highly employed in the study. 3.3. Sample selection, technique, and size The study sample consisted of ten college students, ten university students, twenty high school seniors, twenty staff members and a random selection of twenty parents and alumni of various colleges and universities. Due to the large population of probable respondents, a method for selecting a sample had to be identified. The strategic sampling method was used to identify respondents for the study. 3.4. Ethics of the research methodology Before the beginning of the study, an objective of reducing respondents compromise as far as possible was set. The views contained in the questionnaires were for research purposes only and no third party was allowed to come into contact with them. With such an assurance, respondents felt free to give out information considered sensitive. For privacy purposes, no respondent was required to give out his or her name during the interviews. This raised confidentiality as required in scholarly research. 3.5. Limitations of the study As mu